Latino Empowerment through Public Broadcasting

¹ Magdaleno Manzanárez, “KBBF, the First Chicano, Bilingual Public Radio: An Alternative Voice in the Era of Media Mega-Mergers” (Paper delivered at the National Association of Chicana and Chicano Studies Conference, Guadalajara, Mexico, July 2006).

² Félix Gutiérrez and Jorge Reina Schement, Spanish Language Radio in the Southwestern United States (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979).

³ Hugo Morales, quoted in Miles Corwin, "A Voice for Farm Workers," Los Angeles Times, August 20, 1989, 3.

⁴ Monica De La Torre, “‘Programas Sin Vergüenza (Shameless Programs)’: Mapping Chicanas in Community Radio in the 1970s,” Women's Studies Quarterly 43, no. 3/4 (Fall/Winter 2015): 175, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43958561. For more information on media activism, see Chon A. Noriega, Shot in America: Television, the State, and the Rise of Chicano Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000).

⁵ Manzanárez, “KBBF,” 4.

⁶ Dolores Inés Casillas, Sounds of Belonging: U.S. Spanish-Language Radio and Public Advocacy (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 54.

⁷ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 64-76.

⁸ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 15-16.

⁹ Bilingual Broadcasting Foundation, “KBBF,” Santa Rosa: Bilingual Broadcasting Foundation, n.d., https://kbbf.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/KBBF-Old-Brochure-2.jpg.

¹⁰ Manzanárez, “KBBF.”

¹¹ Manzanárez, “KBBF.”

¹² Monica De La Torre, “Sonic Bridging: Locating, Archiving, and Preserving Spanish-Language and Bilingual Radio in the United States,” New Review of Film and Television Studies 16, no. 4, 448, DOI: 10.1080/17400309.2018.1524969.

¹³ Manzanárez, “KBBF.”

¹⁴ María Martin, quoted in De La Torre, “‘Programas Sin Vergüenza (Shameless Programs)’,” 180.

¹⁵ https://kbbf.org/about/.

¹⁶ Manzanárez, “KBBF.”

¹⁷ Richard Mahler, “Radio: Buenos Dias, America,” Los Angeles Times, March 25, 1979.

¹⁸ Hilliard Harper, “NPR Criticized for Canceling Latino Newscast,” Los Angeles Times, February 27, 1988.

¹⁹ De La Torre, “Sonic Bridging,” 149.

²⁰ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 52-82.

²¹ Monica De La Torre, “Feminista Frequencies: Chicana Radio Activism in the Pacific Northwest,” in Chicana Movidas: New Narratives of Activism and Feminism in the Movement Era, ed. Dionne Espinoza, María Eugenia Cotera, and Maylei Blackwell (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2018), 167, 159-60.

²² Kimberlee Craig, “On the Air,” Yakama Herald-Republic, December 17, 1979, in Oscar Rosales Castañeda, “Radio KDNA: The Voice of the Farmworker, 1975-1985," The Seattle Civil Rights & Labor History Project, https://depts.washington.edu/civilr/farmwk_ch8.htm.

²³ De La Torre, “‘Programas Sin Vergüenza (Shameless Programs)’,” 186.

²⁴ Rosa Ramón, quoted in De La Torre, “Feminista Frequencies,” 169.

²⁵ “Our Mission,” KDNA La Voz del Campesino, accessed January 13, 2020, http://www.kdna.org/our-mission/.

²⁶ De La Torre, “Feminista Frequencies,” 172.

²⁷ De La Torre, “Feminista Frequencies,” 171.

²⁸ Corwin, “A Voice for Farm Workers,” 3.

²⁹ Kathleen Teltsch, “Success Is Reaching Out to a Hispanic Organizer,” New York Times, May 9, 1988.

³⁰ “Our Organization and Mission,” Radio Bilingüe, http://radiobilingue.org/en/quienes-somos/historia-y-mision/.

³¹ Corwin, “A Voice for Farm Workers,” 32.

³² Corwin, “A Voice for Farm Workers,” 32.

³³ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 52.

³⁴ “Noticiero Latino,” Radio Bilingüe, https://radiobilingue.org/rb-programas/noticiero-latino/.

³⁵ http://radiobilingue.org/en/quienes-somos/historia-y-mision/.

³⁶ “Our Organization and Mission,” Radio Bilingüe; Dolores Inés Casillas, “Sounds of Surveillance: U.S. Spanish-Language Radio Patrols La Migra,” American Quarterly 63, no. 3 (2011): 821, https://www.jstor.org/stable/41237577.

³⁷ “About Us,” La Network Campesina, https://campesina.com/about/.

³⁸ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 59.

³⁹ Casillas, Sounds of Belonging, 60.

⁴⁰ “UFW Radio Station Spreads Labor News,” Los Angeles Times, July 3, 1983.

⁴¹ “About Us,” La Network Campesina.

⁴² Luis Reyes and Peter Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood: A Celebration of 100 Years in Film and Television (Hollywood: Lone Eagle Publishing Co., 2000), 312.

⁴³ Jesús Salvador Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting: The 2% factor,” Jump Cut, no. 28 (April 1983): 65, https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/onlinessays/JC28folder/PBSandLatinos.html.

⁴⁴ Chon A. Noriega, Shot in America: Television, the State, and the Rise of Chicano Cinema (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 139.

⁴⁵ Noriega, Shot in America, 139-43.

⁴⁶ Elson Trinidad, “October 1968 – ‘Canción de la Raza,’ 1st KCET Program on Latino Community, Premieres,” KCET, September 24, 2014, https://www.kcet.org/kcet-50th-anniversary/october-1968-cancion-de-la-raza-1st-kcet-program-on-latino-community-premieres.

⁴⁷ "Spanish ‘Sesame Street’ Stimulates Chicano Viewers,” Christian Science Monitor, August 4, 1973.

⁴⁸ Frederick Williams and Diana S. Natalicio, “Evaluating Carrascolendas: A Television Series for Mexican-American Children,” Journal of Broadcasting 16, no. 3 (Summer 1972), 309; Belinda Acosta, “Have You Ever Been to Carrascolendas? Revisiting Austin’s Award-Winning Bilingual TV Series,” Austin Chronicle, July 4, 2003, https://www.austinchronicle.com/screens/2003-07-04/166689/; “KCET Slates Youth Series,” Los Angeles Times, October 13, 1972; “TV Grants Given to Aid Minority Pupils,” New York Times, July 4, 1973.

⁴⁹ Spanish ‘Sesame Street,’”; Aida Barrera, Looking for Carrascolendas: From a Child’s World to Award-Winning Television (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001).

⁵⁰ Chon A. Noriega, “Imagined Borders: Locating Chicano Cinema in America/América," in The Ethnic Eye: Latino Media Arts, ed. Chon A. Noriega and Ana M. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 9.

⁵¹ Jesús Salvador Treviño, Eyewitness: A Filmmaker’s Memoir of the Chicano Movement (Houston, TX: Arte Público, 2001), 123.

⁵² Noriega, “Imagined Borders,” 11-13; Noriega, Shot in America, 150.

⁵³ Lillian Jiménez, “Moving from the Margin to the Center: Puerto Rican Cinema in New York," in The Ethnic Eye: Latino Media Arts, ed. Chon A. Noriega and Ana M. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996), 26.

⁵⁴ Noriega, Shot in America, 150.

⁵⁵ Jiménez, “Moving from the Margin to the Center,” 25.

⁵⁶ Noriega, Shot in America, 150-51.

⁵⁷ Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 351-52.

⁵⁸ Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 351-52.

⁵⁹ Beatrice Berg, “Anglos Can Watch, Too,” New York Times, December 17, 1972.

⁶⁰ El Banquiné de Angelitos Negros can be viewed onsite at the Library of Congress and GBH.

⁶¹ Noriega, Shot in America, 151.

⁶² Jiménez, “Moving from the Margin to the Center,” 26; Noriega, Shot in America, 151; Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 351-52; and Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting, 65.

⁶³ Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 574.

⁶⁴ Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 366.

⁶⁵ WGBH, “La Plaza,” Primetime Program Guide, January 1979.

⁶⁶ Alice Hernandez, Press Release Images/Imagenes, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, revised January 29, 2019.

⁶⁷ William Q. Sánchez, interview with Alan Gevinson and Gabriela Rivera Marin (American Archive of Public Broadcasting), February 25, 2020.

⁶⁸ Alice Hernandez, “Images/Imagenes Celebrates Premier on NJTV & the Latino(a) Celebrity Performing Arts Awards,” Rutgers University, New Brunswick, December 11, 2019.

⁶⁹ Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting,” 65.

⁷⁰ Les Brown, "Grant for PBS Latin Series Goes Directly to Producer," New York Times, October 27, 1979, 45.

⁷¹ Treviño states that the Oye Willie series was not funded for a second year “for what appear valid reasons.” See Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting,” 65.

⁷² Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting,” 65.

⁷³ Noriega, Shot in America, 152-53; Treviño, “Latinos and Public Broadcasting,” 65.

⁷⁴ Noriega, Shot in America, 154-58; quote on 154.

⁷⁵ Hector Galán, entrevista con Maria Hinojosa, Latino USA, July 7, 2023, https://www.latinousa.org/2023/07/07/hectorgalan/.

⁷⁶ Carla Hall, “PBS Magazine for Teens Worth Checking Out,” Washington Post, January 9, 1982, C6; Hector Galán, entrevista con Maria Hinojosa.

⁷⁷ Hector Galán, quoted in Jason Price, “Galan, Hector,” in The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film, ed. Ian Aitken (New York: Routledge, 2013), 280-81.

⁷⁸ Hector Galán, “Films,” https://hectorgalan.com/films; Susan King, “Classic Hollywood: ‘Children of Giant’ Explores Legacy of ‘Giant’ in Marfa, Texas,” Los Angeles Times, April 11, 2005, https://www.latimes.com/entertainment/classichollywood/la-et-mn-ca-classic-hollywood-children-giant-20150412-story.html.

⁷⁹ Noriega, Shot in America, 181-82.

⁸⁰ Teresa Puente, “Show Remembers Chicano Struggle,” Chicago Tribune, April 12, 1996.

⁸¹ Judith Michaelson, “KCET Breaks with History to Fund ‘Chicano!’ Series,” Los Angeles Times, September 9, 1995.

⁸² Walter Goodman, “On the Chicano Awakening,” New York Times, April 12, 1996.

⁸³ PBS, “POV at a Glance”, https://www.pbs.org/pov/about/.

⁸⁴ “Background: About Latino Public Broadcasting,” Latino Public Broadcasting, accessed September 28, 2021, https://lpbp.org/background/.

⁸⁵ The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, May 14, 2007, https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-507-mg7fq9qx2q?start=2409.88&end=3267.52; Democracy Now!, “PBS Criticized for Excluding Latino, Native Voices from WWII Documentary,” April 13, 2007, https://www.democracynow.org/2007/4/13/pbs_criticized_for_excluding_latino_native; Defend the Honor: Claiming Space for Latinos and Latinas in Our Nation’s Consciousness, http://defendthehonor.org.

⁸⁶ Julia Preston, “Four Centuries, Countless Influences: A PBS Series Documents the Story of Hispanics in America,” New York Times, September 15, 2013. Latino Americans is available through Kanopy: https://www.kanopy.com/product/latino-americans.

⁸⁷ Jynnah Radford, “Key Findings about U.S. Immigrants,” Pew Research Center, June 17, 2019, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/06/17/key-findings-about-u-s-immigrants/.

⁸⁸ Emma Lazarus, “The New Colossus,” November 2, 1883, as quoted in National Park Service, “Statue of Liberty: National Monument of New York, The New Colossus,” updated August 14, 2019, https://www.nps.gov/stli/learn/historyculture/colossus.htm.

⁸⁹ Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1990), 265-84.

⁹⁰ "Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill, Liberty Island, New York, October 3, 1965,” LBJ Presidential Library, https://www.lbjlibrary.org/object/text/remarks-signing-immigration-bill-liberty-island-new-york-10-03-1965.

⁹¹ Steven M. Gillon, “That’s Not What We Meant to Do”: Reform and Its Unintended Consequences in Twentieth-Century America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).

⁹² Daniels, Coming to America, 338-44.

⁹³ Katherine Witsman, “U.S. Lawful Permanent Resident: 2017,” Annual Flow Report (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, August 2018), 2, https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Lawful_Permanent_Residents_2017.pdf.

⁹⁴ Regina Branton and Johanna Dunaway, “English- and Spanish-Language Media Coverage of Immigration: A Comparative Analysis", Social Science Quarterly, 89, no. 4 (December 2008): 1006-22, doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00596.x.

⁹⁵ Francisco E. Balderrama and Raymond Rodríguez, Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s, rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006); Kevin R. Johnson, “The Forgotten ‘Repatriation’ of Persons of Mexican Ancestry and Lessons for the ‘War on Terror,” 26 Pace Law Review 1 (2005), 1-26, https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/plr/vol26/iss1/1/.

⁹⁶ Johnson, “The Forgotten ‘Repatriation,’” 2-3, 4.

⁹⁷ Alicia Schmidt Camacho, Migrant Imaginaries (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 67-68; Bracero History Archive, “About,” Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media, George Mason University, Smithsonian National Museum of American History, Brown University, The Institute of Oral History at the University of Texas at El Paso, 2020, http://braceroarchive.org/about.

⁹⁸ Marjorie S. Zatz, “Using and Abusing Mexican Farmworkers: The Bracero Program and the INS,” Law & Society Review 27, no. 4 (1993), 860, https://doi.org:10.2307/3053955.

⁹⁹ Camacho, Migrant Imaginaries, 108.

¹⁰⁰ Kelly Lytle Hernández, “The Crimes and Consequences of Illegal Immigration: A Cross-Border Examination of Operation Wetback, 1943 to 1954,” Western Historical Quarterly 37, no. 4 (Winter 2006), 421-44, https://www.jstor.org/stable/25443415.

¹⁰¹ Kelly Lytle Hernández; quoted in Erin Blakemore, “The Largest Mass Deportation in American History,” HISTORY website, updated June 18, 2019, https://www.history.com/news/operation-wetback-eisenhower-1954-deportation.

¹⁰² Hernández, “Crimes and Consequences,” 421.

¹⁰³ Kelly Lytle Hernández, Migra! A History of the U.S. Border Patrol (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 184-97.

¹⁰⁴ For further information, see Juan Ramon García, Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 (Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 1980).

¹⁰⁵ Johnson, “Remarks at the Signing of the Immigration Bill.”

¹⁰⁶ Ramón A. Gutierrez, "Mexican Immigration to the United States," Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, July 29, 2019, https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-146.

¹⁰⁷ Jill Lepore, These Truths: A History of the United States (New York: W.W. Norton, 2018), 674-75.

¹⁰⁸ James T. Patterson, Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 296.

¹⁰⁹ For further information on the 1965 Act, see Gabriel J. Chin and Rose Cuison Villazor, eds., The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: Legislating a New America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015).

¹¹⁰ D’Vera Cohn, “How U.S. Immigration Laws and Rules Have Changed through History,” FactTank: News in the Numbers, Pew Research Center, September 30, 2015, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/09/30/how-u-s-immigration-laws-and-rules-have-changed-through-history/.

¹¹¹ Gutiérrez, "Mexican Immigration.”

¹¹² Ballotpedia, “California Proposition 187, Prohibit Persons in Violation of Immigration Law from Using Public Healthcare, Schools, and Social Services Initiative (1994),” https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_187,_Prohibit_Persons_in_Violation_of_Immigration_Law_from_Using_Public_Healthcare,_Schools,_and_Social_Services_Initiative_(1994).

¹¹³ Gustavo Arellano, “Prop. 187 Forced a Generation to Put Fear Aside and Fight. It Transformed California, and Me,” Los Angeles Times, October 29, 2019, https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-10-29/proposition-187-california-pete-wilson-essay.

¹¹⁴ Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary can be accessed at https://www.kanopy.com/product/fear-and-learning-hoover-elementary. Additional information can be found at http://archive.pov.org/fearandlearning/film-description/.

¹¹⁵ Ballotpedia,“California Proposition 187.”

¹¹⁶ For further information on California Proposition 187, see Kevin R. Johnson, “Proposition 187 and Its Political Aftermath: Lessons for U.S. Immigration Politics after Trump,” 53 U.C.D. L. Rev. 1859 (2020), https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/issues/53/4/53-4_Johnson.pdf; Kevin R. Johnson, "An Essay on Immigration Politics, Popular Democracy, and California's Proposition 187: The Political Relevance and Legal Irrelevance of Race," 70 Washington Law Review 629 (1995); Kevin R. Johnson, "Public Benefits and Immigration: The Intersection of Immigration Status, Ethnicity, Gender, and Class," 42 UCLA Law Review 1509 (1995).

¹¹⁷ Border Protection, Antiterrorism, and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, H.R. 4437, 109th Cong. (2015), https://www.congress.gov/bill/109th-congress/house-bill/4437.

¹¹⁸ Gutiérrez, "Mexican Immigration."

¹¹⁹ For further information on DACA, see Kevin R. Johnson, “Lessons about the Future of Immigration Law from the Rise and Fall of DACA,” 52 U.C.D. L. Rev. 343 (2018-2019), https://lawreview.law.ucdavis.edu/issues/52/1/Symposium/52-1_Johnson.pdf; Shoba S. Wadhia, “The President and Deportation: DACA, DAPA, and the Sources and Limits of Executive Authority - Response to Hiroshi Motomura,” 55Washburn L.J.189 (2016), https://elibrary.law.psu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1263&context=fac_works.

¹²⁰ Reilly Frye, “Family Separation under the Trump Administration: Applying an International Criminal Law Framework,” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 110, no. 2 (2020): 349, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48572373.

¹²¹ Michael D. Shear, Abby Goodnough, and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Retreats on Separating Families, but Thousands May Remain Apart,” New York Times, June 20, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/20/us/politics/trump-immigration-children-executive-order.html.

¹²² Branton and Dunaway, “English- and Spanish-Language Media Coverage of Immigration.”

¹²³ Casillas, “Sounds of Surveillance,” 811-12.

¹²⁴ Casillas, “Sounds of Surveillance,” 814.

¹²⁵ Carol Nagengast, “Militarizing the Border Patrol,” NACLA Report on the Americas, 32, issue 3 (Nov/Dec 1998), https://doi.org/10.1080/10714839.1998.11725652.

¹²⁶ “Images/Imágenes Series: Award Winning Leader in Public Broadcasting,” press release, no date.

¹²⁷ American Archive of Public Broadcasting, “Interview with William Q. Sánchez,” February 25, 2020.

¹²⁸ Juan Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire: A History of Latinos in America (New York: Penguin Books, 2011), 81.

¹²⁹ Library of Congress, “Crossing the Straits,” https://www.loc.gov/teachers/classroommaterials/presentationsandactivities/presentations/immigration/cuban5.html.

¹³⁰ Federico Subervi, Joseph Torres, and Daniela Montalvo, Network Brownout Report 2005: The Portrayal of Latinos & Latino Issues on Network Television News, 2004 with a Retrospect to 1995 (Austin and Washington, DC: National Association of Hispanic Journalists, 2005), https://nahj.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2005-NAHJ-Network-Brownout-Report.pdf.

¹³¹ Federico Subervi, “Latinos in TV Network News 2008-2014: Still Mostly Invisible and Problematic,” January 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312577225.

¹³² Marisa Abrajano and Simran Singh, “Examining the Link Between Issue Attitudes and News Source: The Case of Latinos and Immigration Reform,” Political Behavior 31 (2009), 3.

¹³³ Lisa M. Edwards and Andrea J. Romero, “Coping with Discrimination among Mexican Descent Adolescents,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 30, no. 1 (February 2008), 24-39.

¹³⁴ Elena Flores et al., “Perceived Racial/Ethnic Discrimination, Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms, and Health Risk Behaviors Among Mexican American Adolescents,” Journal of Counseling Psychology 57, no. 3 (2010), 264-73.

¹³⁵ Gabriela Livas Stein et al., “When Discrimination Hurts: The Longitudinal Impact of Increases in Peer Discrimination on Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in Mexican-origin Youth,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48 (2019), 864-75, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01012-3.

¹³⁶ Gloria Stewner-Manzanares, “The Bilingual Education Act: 20 Years Later,” National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, Occasional Papers in Bilingual Education, no. 6 (Fall 1988), 1-10.

¹³⁷ David Nieto, “A Brief History of Bilingual Education in the United States,” Perspectives on Urban Education (Spring 2009), 61-72, https://urbanedjournal.gse.upenn.edu/sites/default/files/pdf_archive/61-72--Nieto.pdf.

¹³⁸ William J. Bennett, “The Condition of Bilingual Education in the Nation, 1988: A Report to Congress and the President” (Washington: Department of Education, 1988), 1-10.

¹³⁹ David Nieto, “Brief History of Bilingual Education,” 62.

¹⁴⁰ Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, ix.

¹⁴¹ Ballotpedia, “California Proposition 227, Require English Instruction in Public Schools Initiative (June 1998),” https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_227,_Require_English_Instruction_in_Public_Schools_Initiative_(June_1998).

¹⁴² Ballotpedia, “California Proposition 58, Non-English Languages Allowed in Public Education,” https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_58,_Non-English_Languages_Allowed_in_Public_Education_(2016).

¹⁴³ Thomas Purnell, William Idsardi, and John Baugh, “Perceptual and Phonetic Experiments on American English Dialect Identification,” Journal of Language and Social Psychology 18, no. 1 (March 1999), 10-30, https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X99018001002.

¹⁴⁴ Andrew Hanson and Michael Santas, “Field Experiment Tests for Discrimination against Hispanics in the U.S. Rental Housing Market,” Southern Economic Journal 81, no. 1 (July 2014), 135-67, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23809668.

¹⁴⁵ Robert McG. Thomas Jr., “Newark Fire Kills Five in a Tenement,” New York Times, February 5, 1979, D9; Alfonso A. Narvaez, “Major Jersey Cities Find Themselves in the Role of Reluctant Slumlords,” New York Times, February 9, 1979, B3.

¹⁴⁶ U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “26.8 Million Hispanics or Latinos in the U.S. Labor Force in 2016,” September 25, 2017, https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2017/26-point-8-million-hispanics-or-latinos-in-the-u-s-labor-force-in-2016.htm?view_full.

¹⁴⁷ Mitra Toossi, “A New Look at Long-Term Labor Force Projections to 2050,” Monthly Labor Review, November 2006, 19-39, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2006/11/art3full.pdf.

¹⁴⁸ Zatz, “Using and Abusing Mexican Farmworkers,” 851-63.

¹⁴⁹ Matt Garcia, “César Chávez and the United Farm Workers Movement,” Oxford Research Encyclopedias, May 2016, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.217.

¹⁵⁰ Federico Subervi, with the collaboration of Vinicio Sinta, “Latinos in TV Network News 2008-2014: Still Mostly Invisible and Problematic,” January 2017, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312577225.

¹⁵¹ Luis Noe-Bustamante and Antonio Flores, “Facts on Latinos in America,” Hispanic Trends, Pew Research Center, January 3, 2020, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/latinos-in-the-u-s-fact-sheet/.

¹⁵² Kim Parker et al., “Chapter 7: The Many Dimensions of Hispanic Racial Identity,” in Multiracial in America: Proud, Diverse and Growing in Numbers, Pew Research Center Social & Demographic Trends, June 11, 2015, https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2015/06/11/chapter-7-the-many-dimensions-of-hispanic-racial-identity/.

¹⁵³ Clint C. Wilson II, Félix Gutiérrez, and Lena M. Chao, “Chapter 1: Demographics,” in Racism, Sexism, and the Media: Multicultural Issues into the New Communications Age, 4th ed. (Los Angeles: Sage, 2013), 5.

¹⁵⁴ Stuart Hall, “Old and New Identities, Old and New Ethnicities,” in Essential Essays, vol. 2 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2019), 1653.

¹⁵⁵ Hall, “Old and New Identities,” citing Tariq Modood et al., eds., Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage (London: Policy Studies Institute, 1997).

¹⁵⁶ Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 206.

¹⁵⁷ Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 96.

¹⁵⁸ “Mexican - Becoming Part of the United States,” Presentation: Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History, Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress,” accessed September 9, 2020, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/mexican/becoming-part-of-the-united-states/.

¹⁵⁹ Mohamad Moslimani, Luis Noe-Bustamante, and Sono Shah, “Facts on Hispanics of Mexican Origin in the United States, 2021,” Pew Research Center, Fact Sheet, August 16, 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/us-hispanics-facts-on-mexican-origin-latinos/.

¹⁶⁰ Sheila Marie Contreras, “Chicana, Chicano, Chican@, Chicanx,” in Keywords for Latina/o Studies, ed. by Deborah R. Vargas, Nancy Raquel Mirabel, and Lawrence La Fontain-Stokes (New York: New York University Press, 2017), 32.

¹⁶¹ Hector Galán, quoted in Teresa Puente, “Show Remembers ‘Chicano’ Struggle,” Chicago Tribune, April 12, 1996, C3.

¹⁶² Luis Alberto Urrea, “Mexican-American Author Finds Inspiration in Family, Tragedy and Trump,” interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air, NPR, March 5, 2018, https://www.npr.org/2018/03/05/590839936/mexican-american-author-finds-inspiration-in-family-tragedy-and-trump.

¹⁶³ Luis Alberto Urrea, “About,” 1923, https://luisurrea.com/about/.

¹⁶⁴ “Selena Quintanilla,” Texas Women's Hall of Fame – Honorees, Texas Women's University, October 16, 2018, https://twu.edu/twhf/honorees/selena-quintanilla/.

¹⁶⁵ John Lannert, “Beloved Selena Enters the Latin Music Hall of Fame,” Billboard, June 10, 1995, Gale OneFile: Popular Magazines, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A17157532/PPPM?u=loc_main&sid=PPPM&xid=092e6c35; “The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time,” Billboard, April 28, 2015, https://www.billboard.com/photos/most-influential-latin-artists-6546212/.

¹⁶⁶ Matt Garcia, “Cesar Chavez and the United Farm Workers Movement,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, September 2016, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.217.

¹⁶⁷ Reyes and Rubie, Hispanics in Hollywood, 574.

¹⁶⁸ “El Teatro Campesino,” Organizational History, UC Santa Barbara Library, https://www.library.ucsb.edu/special-collections/cema/etc.

¹⁶⁹ “Zoot Suit,” Golden Globe Awards, January 1, 1982, https://www.goldenglobes.com/film/zoot-suit.

¹⁷⁰ “La Bamba,” Golden Globe Awards, January 1, 1988, https://www.goldenglobes.com/film/la-bamba.

¹⁷¹ National Geographic Society, “What Is the Day of the Dead?” video, September 27, 2022, National Geographic Society, November 9, 2012, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/what-day-dead/.

¹⁷² https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/jonesact.html.

¹⁷³ José Trías Monge, Puerto Rico: The Trials of the Oldest Colony in the World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997).

¹⁷⁴ Mohamad Moslimani, Luis Noe-Bustamante, and Sono Shah, “Facts on Hispanics of Puerto Rican Origin in the United States, 2021,” Pew Research Center, Fact Sheet, August 16, 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/us-hispanics-facts-on-puerto-rican-origin-latinos/.

¹⁷⁵ Raquel Ortiz, interview with Gabriela Rivera Marin (American Archive of Public Broadcasting), May 15, 2020.

¹⁷⁶ 1996 Peabody Awards entry form, University of Georgia, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection; quoted in “Mi Puerto Rico,” 1996-01-16, The Walter J. Brown Media Archives & Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA and Washington, DC, accessed August 19, 2020, http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-526-gt5fb4xr26.

¹⁷⁷ Piri Thomas, Down These Mean Streets (New York: Vintage Books, 1991).

¹⁷⁸ “Piri Thomas,” Oxford Reference, accessed July 18, 2020, https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803104006357.

¹⁷⁹ Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 240.

¹⁸⁰ https://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip_507-4t6f18sz65.

¹⁸¹ “Ricky Martin,” Latin Music USA, PBS, accessed July 17, 2020, http://latinmusicusa.lunchbox.pbs.org/wgbh/latinmusicusa/legends/ricky-martin/.

¹⁸² “Ricky Martin,” Latin Music USA, PBS.

¹⁸³ Suzette Fernandez, “Revisiting the Song That Changed Ricky Martin's Career: 'Cup of Life' Turns 20,” Billboard, March 9, 2018, https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/latin/8238667/ricky-martin-cup-of-life-20-years.

¹⁸⁴ “Ricky Martin,” Latin Music USA, PBS.

¹⁸⁵ Barack Obama, Remarks on the Nomination of Sonia Sotomayor To Be a Supreme Court Associate Justice, American Presidency Project, eds. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/286525.

¹⁸⁶ W. Raymond Ollwerther, “Sotomayor ’76 Recalled as Activist for Latino Causes at Princeton,” Princeton Alumni Weekly, July 15, 2009, https://paw.princeton.edu/article/sotomayor-76-recalled-activist-latino-causes-princeton.

¹⁸⁷ Raymond Hernandez and David W. Chen, “Nominee’s Links with Advocates Fuel Her Critics,” New York Times, May 28, 2009, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/29/us/politics/29puerto.html.

¹⁸⁸ Peter Baker and Jeff Zeleny, “Obama Hails Judge as ‘Inspiring,’” New York Times, May 26, 2009, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/27/us/politics/27court.html.

¹⁸⁹ “Rita Moreno,” Biography.com (A&E Networks Television, October 9, 2019), https://www.biography.com/actor/rita-moreno.

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¹⁹¹ “Rita Moreno,” Emmy 22, no. 6 (December 2000), 70. For the complete Television Academy interview with Moreno, see https://interviews.televisionacademy.com/interviews/rita-moreno.

¹⁹² Mohamad Moslimani, Luis Noe-Bustamante, and Sono Shah, “Facts on Hispanics of Salvadoran origin in the United States, 2021,” Pew Research Center, Fact Sheet, August 16, 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/us-hispanics-facts-on-salvadoran-origin-latinos/.

¹⁹³ Joaquín M. Chávez, "How Did the Civil War in El Salvador End?" American Historical Review 120, no. 5 (December 2015), 1784-1797.

¹⁹⁴ Elisabeth Jean Wood, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 8.

¹⁹⁵ Chávez, "How Did the Civil War in El Salvador End?,” 1784, 1793.

¹⁹⁶ Madeline Messick and Claire Bergeron, “Temporary Protected Status in the United States: A Grant of Humanitarian Relief That Is Less Than Permanent,” Migration Information Source, July 2, 2014, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/temporary-protected-status-united-states-grant-humanitarian-relief-less-permanent. For recent information on TPS related to El Salvador, see U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “Temporary Protected Status Designated Country: El Salvador,” last reviewed/updated November 1, 2019, https://www.uscis.gov/humanitarian/temporary-protected-status/temporary-protected-status-designated-country-el-salvador.

¹⁹⁷ “Escritor Salvadoreño Horacio Castellanos Moya Obtuvo el Premio de Narrativa Manuel Rojas,” Ministerio de las Culturas, las Artes y el Patrimonio, Gobierno de Chile, May 14, 2014, https://www.cultura.gob.cl/institucional/escritor-salvadoreno-horacio-castellanos-moya-obtuvo-el-premio-de-narrativa-manuel-rojas/.

¹⁹⁸ Wood, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador, 8.

¹⁹⁹ Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009-546 (1996), https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-104publ208/pdf/PLAW-104publ208.pdf.

²⁰⁰ Renata Keller, “A Historical Perspective on the Cuba-U.S. Relationship,” interview by Jason Steinhauer, Insights: Scholarly Work at the John W. Kluge Center, Library of Congress, December 19, 2014, https://blogs.loc.gov/kluge/2014/12/historical-perspectivecuba-u-s-relationship/.

²⁰¹ Lisandro Pérez, "Cubans in the United States," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 487 (September 1986): 126-37, http://www.jstor.com/stable/1046058; John Scanlan and Gilburt Loescher, “U.S. Foreign Policy, 1959-80: Impact on Refugee Flow from Cuba, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 467 (May 1983), 116-18, http://www.jstor.com/stable/1044932.

²⁰² Pérez, "Cubans in the United States," 130.

²⁰³ Ivet González, “Cuba’s Balsero Crisis Still an Open Wound, 20 Years On,” IPS (Inter Press Service) News Agency, August 6, 2014, http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/08/cubas-balsero-crisis-still-an-open-wound-20-years-on/.

²⁰⁴ White House, President Barack Obama, “Statement by the President on Cuban Immigration Policy,” January 12, 2017, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/statement-president-cuban-immigration-policy; Weekend Edition, “What the End of ‘Wet-Foot, Dry-Foot’ Means for Cubans,” NPR, January 14, 2017, https://www.npr.org/2017/01/14/509807177/what-the-end-of-wet-foot-dry-foot-means-for-cubans.

²⁰⁵ Mohamad Moslimani, Luis Noe-Bustamante, and Sono Shah, “Facts on Hispanics of Cuban origin in the United States, 2021,” Pew Research Center, Fact Sheet, August 16, 2023, https://www.pewresearch.org/hispanic/fact-sheet/u-s-hispanics-facts-on-cuban-origin-latinos/.

²⁰⁶ Greg Allen, “Children of Cuba Remember Their Flight to America,” NPR, November 19, 2011, https://www.npr.org/2011/11/19/142534943/pedro-pan-childrens-life-altering-flight-from-cuba.

²⁰⁷“Carlos Eire,” Yale University, Department of History, accessed July 20, 2020, https://history.yale.edu/people/carlos-eire.

²⁰⁸ “The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time”; Howard Cohen, “Gloria Estefan’s Mother, Singer Gloria Fajardo, Dies at 88,” Miami Herald, June 14, 2017, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/local/obituaries/article156070134.html.

²⁰⁹ AllMusic, “Biography: Gloria Estefan,” 2023, https://www.allmusic.com/artist/gloria-estefan-mn0000664817/biography.

²¹⁰ “The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time.”

²¹¹ Barack Obama, Remarks on Presenting the Presidential Medal of Freedom Online, American Presidency Project, eds. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/311535.

²¹² “Global Superstars Emilio and Gloria Estefan Honored in Star-Studded Gershwin Prize Tribute,” Library of Congress, March 13, 2019, https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-19-029/global-superstars-emilio-and-gloria-estefan-honored-in-star-studded-gershwin-prize-tribute/2019-03-13/.

²¹³ Gonzalez, Harvest of Empire, 242-44.

²¹⁴ Tony Fletcher, All Hopped Up and Ready to Go: Music from the Streets of New York, 1927-1977 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 1-21.

²¹⁵ Scanlan and Loescher, “U.S. Foreign Policy, 1959-80: Impact on Refugee Flow from Cuba,” 130-37.

²¹⁶ William M. LeoGrande and Peter Kornbluh, Back Channel to Cuba: The Hidden History of Negotiations between Washington and Havana (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014), 214-18.