BackStory; Darkness Over the Plain: The Bison in American History

major funding for backstory is provided by an anonymous donor the national endowment for the humanities and the justice and rubber cornell memorial foundation oh yes welcome to back storage facilities please the history behind today's headlines amazing connelly and i'm brian balogh if you're new to the podcast where all historians owner colleagues and errors injure when freeman and each week we explore the topic in american history last month use climate activist gratitude and derek gave an impassioned speech at the united nations climate summit during a speech she admonish world leaders for their unwillingness to take meaningful action against climate change still in my dreams my childhood with your empty words people are suffering people are dying and dying or systems are collapsing a mass extinctions or you can talk about isn't i mean

if this is hardly the first time the world has faced the prospect of mass extinction in the beginning of twentieth century america's flora and fauna was seriously threatened by urban encroachment and over hunting and one animal at the center of the struggle was the bison by the end of the nineteenth century once various environmental factors and human hunters had done their work there were fewer than a thousand bison left in north america that's angel eyes and he specializes in environmental history and has studied how the place and one from an animal and access to near extinction in the nineteen century he says a one point in early eighteen hundreds there were tens of millions of bison roaming america's great plains some years maybe above thirty million and then they may have over gray's the range and then the number would crash the number of bison is always fluctuating in going up and down that thirty million or twenty four twenty five million is probably much closer to the maximum

number that the great plains could sustain so how did the animal which is a western grasslands and its millions is the brink of extinction and underground for years and what's the current status of the bicycle today you can find bison protected an animal preserve in the west in packets for consumption on the shelves of grocery stores and in twenty sixteen president obama name the bison america's first national mammal so what exactly does the animal represents to people and how's the bison population changed with the times in celebration of world and one day we'll explore the history of the bison united states will hear more from andrew eisenberg and what caused the licensed destruction in the nineteenth century and why some today see it as a symbol of a bygone american frontier you'll find a whole team is working to restore full using shoshone tribe wind river reservation in wyoming and you learn about the surprising and troubling connection between bison preservation and adolf hitler

but soda story back nearly eighteen hundreds when millions of bison roam the great plains and as andrew eisenberg says diverse groups of native americans like the lakota cheyenne tribe or hunting them if you look at the number of natives and you look at the pressure they're putting on the bison in a good year the number of bison that they're consuming for food and for hides for their launches and for roads keep themselves warm the rovers that is the winter skin of the bison with hair still attached all that was well within the capacity the bison to assist but eighteen sixties everything changed with the influx of white hunters in the great plains in a short amount of time eisenberg says these hunters delivered a devastating blow to the bison population what happens in the aging sixties really after the civil war it's a kind of spasm of industrial expansion on the part of united states as the us

lurches into the great plains so there are very powerful accurate rifles that have been developed during the civil war in the late eighteen sixties railroad start reaching out into the great plains so all of these things have conspired to have a you know a few thousand white height hunters move first enter the summer plans and then they moved farther north and they delivered through the girl for the bison that native hunting had chipped away at the bison population over over several decades within about ten or fifteen years these white hot hunters did away with about twelve to fifteen million bison and though we don't necessarily think about this now tanning and leather was i think the fifth largest industry in the united states in the middle of the nineteenth century and the nineteenth century and there's extraordinary demand for this and so bison leather it was simply just incorporated into this expanding demand as it turned out by some other is highly elastic so a lot of it wound up as building for industrial

machinery which the other sense in which this is a kind of industrial consumption of the bison now there has been speculation that the federal government actively supported the destruction of the bison by white the hunters is that the case yes i think we have to phrase this very carefully some people have said that the army went out and shot bison in order to deny there used indians submit its would have to submit to the reservation system and in fact what did happen is that there were too few bison left for natives to sustain themselves and they had to submit to the reservation system and the army welcomed this because the army was not having a lot of success when they were fighting it as directly they were beaten rather badly and a couple times in nineteen seventy six by the lakota cheyenne and arapaho but what's not true is that the army went out and did this directly in fact what happened was it was private hunter's who did the work of

killing off the bison the army and the department of the interior saw what was happening and applauded what was happening but they didn't direct it so the way i put it is that the federal government commanded the work of these hunters but it didn't command them write it probably could have put a stop to it but absolutely kobus started there were a couple of bills that were introduced into congress and the age and seventies that would have for bid the hunting a bison in federal territories and the people who are sponsoring this legislation were inspired by the spca the society for the prevention of cruelty to animals which was founded right after the civil war and primarily had as its mission kind treatment of pets and domestic livestock and this was the spca is first impressed me neither only effort to extend their mission to a wild animal and the people who were in favor of this legislation in congress i remember reading in the debates in congress one of them said is that

a man who will kill bison is someone who would shoot down his mother's cowan the barnyard resort of adopting the spca rubber yes there are those who've critiqued your interpretation of the decline of bison for placing too much blame on native americans i i want to get your work spots to that well i don't think that anyone who's read the book destruction of the bison with an open mind would think that i lead white tied hunters off the hook make it very clear that there were the ones who deliver the coup de gras to the person and i think it's one thing to say that native groups who had kind of improvised and new resource strategies around hunting bison from horseback and over the course of eighty years or so from you know beginning around the something some reason something eighties chipped away at the bison population in

concert with environmental factors over which they had no control like the fact that the weather began to get warmer in the great plains certain hitting fifties and that others patchy droughts or upgrade plans are kind of chipping away at the bison population as well to me that kind of use of the bison where they may have been overusing the bison in seasons one there was not enough rainfall to support the bison population it is very different from this industrial surge and the great plains in the age and sixties image and seventies that did away with twelve or fifteen million bison very quickly for instance we don't know whether natives left to themselves might not have reconfigured their use the bison you're having realize that oh in some seasons we may be killing more than can be sustained we need to pull back on this we don't know because they were given the chance to figure that out so to me they're very different things you know often guido miss something and towards god or

disappearing was that the case with the precipitous decline of the bison when i'm getting out here andrew is trying to understand the move to preserve the bison yeah there's a very interesting pivot or slalom in on the part of a lot of white americans about the bison it was a species that was thought of as wild as the resource of the natives has an animal that would interfere with farming and ranching in the great plains and so a lot of people applauded the destruction of the bison in eating seventies so they were seen as pests yes there was a way of opening up the great plains and then as soon as natives were on reservations and no longer presented the same threat to the white settlement of the west then there were a number of people that he became very nostalgic about the bison and sought to preserve it from extinction and these people including teddy roosevelt who was

very much about a kind of frontier masculine notion of the western how that sort of experience the west was good for all americans william hornaday around the bronx zoo also some pretty prominent people jp morgan among them all then got together and founded the american bison society in nineteen oh five and the idea was to preserve the bison from extinction and what they did was they rounded up the bison and they'd collected a few really fewer than a hundred and they put them on some very small preserve and they install these bison on those reserves and and then declared that they had done their job because what they've essentially created them as tourist attractions people could go see bison experienced the west and then returned to city is a return to the east having tasted the flavor of the frontier what do you make a hope of turning the bison into a symbol of western masculinity

way in clearly that western masculinity had almost led the bison to become extinct right well there's there's obviously a lot of irony to that i think that one of things we think about is that you know this kind of preservation happen within the cultural context of the late nineteenth early twentieth century and elites such as teddy roosevelt had an overwhelming concern with what they saw as the sort of debilitating and famine icing effects of city fired cosmopolitan easy living and so they they really were advocating this kind of move to give back into the outdoors an experience kind of strenuous living in the west the kind of living the bison hunters had had them at and the neo conservatives are knitting eighties and so going to national parks or going to a bison preserve italy's seeing these kinds of animals even if you weren't hunting them although there was continued hunting of bison going on at private ranches that would give you this kind of

case the frontier the bison were preserved in a peculiar kind of way they no longer had free range throughout the west they were preserved in very small little herds and the streets were so small in fact that there was not enough genetic diversity and so there are some genetic anomaly that began to occur after a few generations of the small birds on these forest preserves and that's not something that the american bison society necessarily understood in fact to the contrary they thought that these few bison that had survived the slaughter of the nineteen century must be the fittest of the species to be ok to start over with them in reserve so how many bison are there today some wear between half a million and a million bison in the united states and the overwhelming majority of them are on ranches and they raised for slaughter there are only about ten or fifteen thousand bison on public reserves and that gets to the weird status of bison in the united states

then they are animals you can go see at a zoo or a public preserve and you can also go to a supermarket and buy a bison stake and be and that's a strange position to be in you know what what i find interesting about that is that we get upset about the yellowstone bison being killed because we've kind of thought of the bison as though wasn't when this began our national mammal but it always unofficially was a kind of symbol of something oh we move marine don't get upset at all at the large number of bison that are slaughtered every day and in avatars in order to provide meat for restaurants and supermarkets so they're biologically exactly the same animal but one of them uncle preserve we decided is special and the other one on a private ranch we don't think is special andrew light saber is the whole distinguished professor of american history at the universe of kansas is

also the author of the book the destruction of the bison in environmental history seventeen fifty three nineteen twenty they're a little lower madison grant is one of the more important figures in american history you've probably never heard of credit as a savior to some of our most cherished wildlife grant was one of the original founders of the conservation movement but beneath his pioneering theories and conservation league dark undercurrent of scientific racism while mike devoted his life to preserving bison and other endangered species he also worked tirelessly to save what he considered the superior human race blonde haired blue eyed know next

born in eighteen sixty five to a wealthy family in manhattan grant spent much of his early adulthood going to a week men's clubs and hunting big game he's the same class as teddy roosevelt and i'm drinking and hunting war what men like that who didn't afterward are earning a living dead well some things never change that's historian jonathan spiral he says while young graham was a prolific hunter he soon underwent a dramatic transformation wilmore the grand hunted the more he noticed that our wildlife population was declining because of unrestricted hunting and because of the encroachments of urban civilization and to his credit he was transformed from a rather shallow young man known for his carousing and squinting into an art and conservationist so by the eighteen nineties

he would've looked at the bison and realized starkly and to his horror that there were declining precipitously in population and so he concluded that we need to save the bison and not save the bison so i can hunt them twenty years from now say the bison because they have a right to exist as the bison teetered on the verge of extinction grant came up with a plan he started by lobbying to create a bison refuge in a former happy in fact he actually hope to create for bison refuge is purposely separated to ensure that no one calamity or disease and endangered the entire species so he surveyed all the national forests and hit upon one it's called wichita mounds national forest it's in oklahoma which had great grazing grounds for the southern port of american bison originally and in nineteen oh five grant convinced his friend teddy roosevelt who happened to be

president of the united states to create the wichita mountains national wildlife refuge in oklahoma it's the nation's first ever begin refuge and the director of the bronx zoo and selected fifteen bison from the zoo's heard he drive into grand central station even take a cat daddy gave up the cab there's photos of the wagons and what you drove them down to the railroad station because you know it's hard enough to get a cab in manhattan but you know hailing a cab with a herd of bison a diet that's a yeah that's a tough goal he gets these bison onto a train and they head out west and it really was a spectacle throngs of westerners would come out all along the railroad route to see these bison aged native americans showed up to see a living bison and there are plans to train drove out west it took him a week he arrived in oklahoma they released into their new home and to make that long unhappy story short those

fifteen bison from the bronx have now grown into a very happy safe and prolific heard of a thousand bison were a way to kind of moving in issues mean when you go from the bride would have trouble going from the bronx the oklahoma did the bison struggle or did they like feel right at home right away there were all kinds of issues issues with tax issues with predators issues with poachers these were all issues that granted his fellow conservationists have to work out in fact it became such a pr project that's grant decided to create an organization the american bison society specifically to help the bison acclimate to the new range eggheads a great everyone agreed for refugees so he felt they needed an organization to raise the money to create three more refuges that they needed were

important it was the first president of the american bison society teddy roosevelt was the honorary president and the gave lectures they wrote newspaper magazine articles extolling the cause of bison conservation arm the american bison society had a very dramatic logo in which pedro maxfield parish had this magnificent bull standing proudly on a rocky mountain and as a result the public became actually very aware of the plight of the bison the nation's poor into the bison society the society we can order is possible additional rangers out west the device three more possible ranges and they'll lobby congress madison grant gordy lobby congress and by the time of the first world war commerce attack had established three more bison range is one in montana one in south dakota one in nebraska and there was the first for bison refugees flee the war they were national treasures and i gather enough bison to actually populated

well that was still being populated by bison from either zoos or private collections and madison grant insisted on absolutely pure blooded park bison and most bison that you just find the world has by now mated with callas they were called catalyst and he didn't want to save that species he wanted actual bison but that's how they say the bison where there were five hundred bison left when he started as a davis five hundred thousand bison is it's one of the great conservation efforts in world history it's a it's a remarkable story but that was a phrase that you use to his fascination with your beloved that i wanna returned to because he felt that way about human beings as well among wrong in nineteen sixteen madison grant published the passing of the great race it's one of the most influential books of the twentieth century because employed the latest findings of science to claim that the

blonde haired blue eyed more ticks there's a term invented by madison grant the nordic sea or the master race of course the book is entitled the passing of the great race greg and that's because grand claims that the nordic store becoming extinct degree greece's passing how could the master race be dying out because in nineteen sixteen the nordic cinema or caught or being swamped by millions of inferior immigrants from southern and eastern europe who were predominantly catholic and worst of all his first madison grant is concerned jews right my relatives and my relatives and grant felt he must warn his fellow toward acts that we must prevent these inferior immigrants from polluting our pure blood or the great race is going to pass and jonathan did did he'd drop on is understanding

the principles of conservation and savings the bison in order to come to this conclusion about humans absolutely grant learned from his work and conservation that first of all one of the worst things you can do is introduce a non native species into north america because it'll take over and drive out the native born species you conceded jews in his mind or like weeds being introduced to north america and have to drive out the name of your ex you know as historians were not supposed to jump ahead but you know i gotta ask you whether a guy like hitler picked up but it's kind of figure if sadly tragically yes in nineteen twenty four hitler read a german translation of the passing of the great race here regarding dual gross and

casals and learned from this respected american conservationist with a blonde haired blue eyed nor ticks which in germany to call hearings or the master race that the dark haired dark eyed jews or the lowest of the races and hitler declared madison grant passing of the great race is my bible not surprisingly there for most of the leaders of the nazi party read it and on at the nuremberg war crimes trials after world war two when the us but the surviving leaders of the third reich on trial the nazi defendants enter the passing of the great race as the defense exhibit to justify their policy of anti semitic genocide so how do you square what caught the overlap between some conservationists thought end each well was speaking in twenty

nineteen weird to be blunt conservation isn't good racism back that of course is not how they view these things back at the turn of the twentieth century medicine that was hardly the only conservationist who was a racist in those days indeed with some notable exceptions john you're comes to mind most of graham's peers were active in both the conservation movement and the eugenics movement which was the movement to implement scientific racism and i am in a story like an attempt to put myself in the shoes of historical actors and i can empathize with the fact that the members of the eastern aristocracy in nineteen hundred were deeply anxious that they were losing their hold over america and their reactionary response was to desperately trying to preserve the best and largest and oldest and

most agnes end of our endangered native species in the case of fun out that mean to see the american bison floor of the gigantic red words people the supreme court next it was clear to grant at least that just as the noble bison were going extinct so too with a blonde haired a whiteboard x and it was his duty to save them jonathan spiral is dean of the college of arts humanities and social sciences at castle ten university he's also the author of defending the mass directs conservation eugenics and the legacy of madison grant it didn't when we win as the world of bees migration

it was something that clicked this is jason baldus talking about a pivotal moment for him in the late nineteen nineties he was in east africa the serengeti mr samar planes and i was witnessing an extraordinary scene will to be migrating in a herd so massive it defied the imagination driving for a few hundred miles in under roads and as far as you can see in every directions will the beast and we can as a thirty other species are so one day we saw at hyenas there was at that moment you know so now if my dad on the plains in and have a conversation about what are unsanitary they look like you know the realization that they're well we're seeing which is less than five percent of what the bison was here for less than two hundred years ago and so that that sparked something in me jason's the buffalo representative for the eastern shoshone tribe at the wind river reservation in wyoming he's

passionate about bringing bison back to the area where they once roamed the hope is that we can instill respect for this animal we can work on a paradigm shift of how we view these animals you know the story of buffalo native americans is very similar in the cornell and remnants of our once former us territories then drives are now on reservations and unlawful in parks and refugees or on private lands so you still can go to many republicans are in very few tribal lands to see bison managers wildlife and there's really a discrepancy in how these animals are treated prisoners eight hundred and fifty thousand or so bison in the commercial meat market those are genetically manipulate it but there's only twenty one thousand bison exist in conservation

populations mean they exist as wildlife are under financial regulation factors so it's important that in bison conservation were leading the way towards a paradigm shift that their respects these animals as wildlife we see him all over his logos and emblems and things like that but we're here to see him i spoke recently with jason about what it means to restore and reclaim an animal the eastern shoshone consider sake and the star of the white house and take us back to that eighteen eighties when a local missionary recorded a staggering change that particular survey is from the shoshone purposeful missionary by the name of reverend roberts who spent sixty six years with the eastern shoshone and the northern arapaho people he kept journals documenting the number of bison that were being taken by the tribes at that time and so in nineteen eighteen eighty one i believe the figure was around twenty

five hundred bison were taken for food for cooling shelter et cetera laboy eighty five there were ten other were taken by the tribes and after that there were no more available all this changed in twenty sixteen that you're building off the work of his father he's helped usher in the arrival of ten bison that whenever it was a historic moment the tribe had never had access to bison for for food or for ceremonial purposes and so when that first color fit the ground in the middle of night half of that trailer that's really when it hit home that that they were back for us not by some of the men is like house not now bison that it rounded up in your dating vaccinated and treated like a cow we want these buffalo to be respected in the way that they should be and that is likely other wildlife species so this effort is is unique in that these buffalo

ultimately be treated differently and as part of that paradigm shift to show what can happen in terms or both awful management as wildlife on tribal lands and how that really can trickle over into how we see them on public lands tom a little bit more about what seemed the bison as tribal animals as part of the community of the wind river reservation where that mean for the folks living on the reservation and thinking about their own versions of the self determination no name for ourselves as a witch and eco lotion show the people here the eastern shoshone band we call ourselves a bottle years but again that buffalo has been gone from us for so long that we forgot how to live with that animal and we maintain our ceremonies and those types of things but you know even those it's only really legally be unable to practice

the ceremony since american indian religious freedom act of nineteen seventy eight as forty years ago and so we are still healing from sony paul susan things in the past that have resulted in a lot of this intergenerational trauma that we have in our society in our culture and so we have to instill a sense of pride in a way to do that is always been through three of his bowl full of those bowl full of the way to help us heal to wait helpless reconnect and then that's exactly where we're trying to do through a minute occasion program to harvest a buffalo and bring our elders together with their young people to reinvigorated languages to learn how we use those parts of the animal how we process that i hadn't even how we utilize that those parts in imports of our share morning is that these things are and cultural revitalization this is critical to who we are as is usually people grapple people or black feet are

cheyenne and that means that there must be something special about having bison among the folks living at wind river as opposed to those recently on farms or simply been raised for meat and how would you describe the importance of that difference a meeting you mentioned earlier it's not about ending necessarily the farm raising bison but there is something different a howl which are showing people relating tobias and that is part of that healing process we did dumb harvest to our buffalo a couple weeks ago and it was for those purposes i mentioned it was to send need to the ocean shore near union and that happened about a week ago in lawton oklahoma stealing our people buffalo is probably the one of the most important steps to hungry learning how to use it it was difficult to harvest those those animals

because of all of the hard work that is taken to give them get them here but it's also a community education a lot of our our own people don't understand that the history of what happened to the bison the governmental policies that resulted in the extermination the contemporary a search why that's important but we're also not saying that a body has to change their livelihood lot of people especially in the cattle industry feels threatened by on bison and we have tribal farmers ranchers that they run cattle one of the things we've always said is that these buffalo are in no way a threat to those cattle or or their livelihood that cow back out benefits as a family or an individual but these buffalo may benefit everybody and for you it really does begin with thinking about the bison as wildlife we can only manage six of the seven nine unique species is as wildlife including the balls in them and there's another

predators so why is it that that bison a buffalo is the only one that bit we don't treat like that and a lot of that goes back to the conquering of the west the notion of manifest destiny that the girls pioneers and settlers out here were it on a task to remove the indians and remove buffalo that made way for these lard beef operations many of which are in existence today right and so we're now in an era of love a time when when tribes could exercise of sovereignty we and gary learn languages we can we can practice india who we are as she's shown these are rebels or a hooters in a time like we've never been able to before when they heard that when river is now to just over thirty bison there's a long term plan for

growing the number of bison is about introducing more population simply natural production and what's the idea or the whole belief or how many bison the reservation can actually sustain the steps are needed to a place of our oath of collaboration and more partnership we have two tribal governments on this reservation the eastern shoshone and the northern arapaho but both nations are both more people if we can look at buffalo as a benefit to all of us on this reservation and that means expanding range into tribal land we want to reach a threshold of a thousand animals and this is through conservation of the species the international union of conservation nature i see him put out a benchmark of a thousand animals for you to maintain genetic editor energy maybe we would hope that we can to expand range to move to an area that would facilitate the growth of

our population to look to harvest level and then in a period of time think about expanding further past that those wind river reservation as more potential habitat for bison than than almost any other reservation in the west but again wildlife management is a lot less about managing wildlife this is about managing people i visited bhutan will back and they do just fine it's a people and his isn't a partisan issue at all or is this really a matter of one other actors i spoke to make guesses described it as similar and fighting in other words that there are folks who are operating in mainstream party politics were basically wrangling with each other over allegations of portions and such an endless to do with necessarily what the tribe is trying to put forth one is correct i'm just a couple years ago in montana we we defeated thirteen anti bison bills and does last

legislative session only six anti abortion bills there's less of that legislation in wyoming but there is that in fighting to fight those tribes on getting bison back on the landscape as wildlife and and not in the triage you look at the american prairie reserve the ceo mark of the charles m russell efforts to restore a bison on large landscapes and then there's been met with quite a bit of hostility people don't wanna see it so jason give me some sense of what the flavors of these bills there opposing the expansion of the bison population expending the bison population has been controversial because why have a population of bison in yellowstone that in nineteen oh two there was twenty three the park grew up essentially around those those animals and the population grew and i kind of came

to head nineteen ninety seven where there was a tough winter bison were leaving the park in order to seek winter forage of course inside the park bison her iconic species or just revered but as those animals stepped outside of the mizner boundary he became essentially livestock or oral a threat to the livestock industry because of the perceived threat of those losses were flaws is what brought by cattle in the first place and infected the wildlife and in states like idaho montana wyoming established to slow says free status of that they export their beef down while it created controversy when those bison weeks when to leave the party they were shot there's never been a dutchman occasional bison given the company's losses in the wild there is documented cases of elk giving cattle bruce

losses but ellington move freely across that boundary what is what is the reasoning their wallets is money that jackson helped her over the sports industry that draws in people the hunt elk is a tremendous economic boost to the economy its elk were persecuted are treated in some way the bison were that bad economy could could crash or collapse they don't they don't receive the same economic benefit from from bison and twenty sixteen president barack obama designated the bison the official mammal of the united states the story of the bison as a big part of american history obviously continuing that history earl extraordinarily well compellingly but what we miss if we overlooked that's intro if we don't give the bison there do you know i think so i think that's about when our reservation was established in at sixty three the shoshone reservation was forty four million acres there was the terror that was in traditional territory of those she surely

people and this was before the state's for bollywood behalf of wyoming's northern colorado northern utah in eastern idaho and majority of yellowstone only fly of years later in eighty sixty eight my reservation was reduced by forty two million acres so when when it comes to the federal and iran policy yet most americans look at it like yours the united states they gave these trials great women tactics when in fact it's the other way around the tribe's relinquished parts of the united states in that we would be able to preserve our resort reservation reserve hour ways of life in perpetuity of course that didn't happen things like a general aman act opener reservations from standing within the boarding schools are removed their children are our spirituality was outlawed and all of these things chipped away at who we were on as native americans now i think back to what if the reservation was to a forty four million acres you know would we have

issues with wildland urban interface know it wouldn't really have issues with healthy rivers and streams overgrazing by and by lifestyle i think about a lot of these things in them we continue to encroach upon these places that our ancestors and set aside for our continued use an occupancy and those things are even today being diminished and that's not for just native americans that's all people because even our public lands have the potential to be auctioned off so our democracy uses is being eroded away the o our access to public lands places are under threat and those animals those birds those fish they don't have a voice we have to be that voice for them and if we are we can't see it that way if it were always at the top of the food

chain and then don't care about what happens bullets war war war and doom and so i think what we know a new paradigm shift in terms of how we think about awful but we're paradigm shift in about how we think about our connection with the natural world jason bodices the eastern shoshone tribe is buffalo representative he also works for the national wildlife federation's trouble partnerships program as a travel by sue courtney nasa that's going to trust that you can keep the conversation going on but it's nobody thought about the center asks astute questions about history of the finest backwards at about fourteen percent in emails the backstory of virginia

brought on facebook and twitter at whatever you do you don't see a stranger factories produce average in the humanities they just sort of provided by anonymous donor cells and robert corell memorial foundation for johns hopkins university and the national endowment for the humanities of interviews finding his conclusions or recommendations expressed in this podcast are not necessarily represent those of the national guard additional support for unity brian balogh is a professor of history at the university of virginia it is as professor janet is president emeritus of the university of richmond says jon friedman is a professor of history and american studies domestic nathan connolly is an associate professor of history at johns hopkins

university it